Researchers examining mitochondrial signaling may also wish to review Klotho, a longevity-associated protein studied in related aging and metabolic contexts.
For broader research context on nootropic compounds, including comparative stacks, cycling considerations, and interaction notes, see the Complete Nootropic Cheat Sheet.
For a companion long-form discussion of the mitochondrial research context, see SS-31 and MOTS-C: The Mitochondrial Peptides Longevity Researchers Are Watching Closely.
What Is SS-31?
SS-31 (Elamipretide) is a synthetic tetrapeptide that selectively concentrates in the inner mitochondrial membrane, where it binds cardiolipin — a unique phospholipid found almost exclusively at the inner mitochondrial membrane that is essential for mitochondrial architecture, ATP synthase function, and the organization of electron transport chain supercomplexes.
Cardiolipin and Mitochondrial Protection
Cardiolipin is required for the structural integrity of electron transport chain supercomplexes, the stability of cytochrome c attachment to the inner membrane, and the function of ATP synthase. Oxidative stress causes cardiolipin peroxidation, which disrupts supercomplex organization, releases cytochrome c (triggering apoptosis), and profoundly impairs mitochondrial ATP production. SS-31 binds cardiolipin, protects it from peroxidation, and restores normal mitochondrial cristae architecture.
Cardiac and Renal Research
SS-31 has demonstrated dramatic cardioprotective effects in ischemia-reperfusion models — reducing infarct size by 40–50% and preserving ejection fraction. Human Phase 2 trials in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction showed significant improvements in cardiac energetics and 6-minute walk distance. SS-31 is also in Phase 3 trials for FSGS (focal segmental glomerulosclerosis) kidney disease, where mitochondrial dysfunction in podocytes is a key driver of pathology.
Quick Reference
Member reference tables summarize the compound's research parameters.
Research Indications
Research Protocols
As reported in cited literature and research-community logs (see Research Citations below), not a personal dosing recommendation.
This member section describes parameters reported in the research literature.
Peptide Interactions
This member section summarizes reported compound interactions and evidence limitations.
Reported Research Time Points
This member section summarizes reported research time points.
Safety Notes
Included for harm-reduction awareness only, in the event this compound is encountered outside its labeled research use. Inclusion here does not imply RUO Codes endorses, recommends, or instructs human use.
This member section discusses research safety considerations and uncertainties.
Quality Indicators
Research Citations
- Barth Syndrome Clinical Trial - FDA Approval (2025)
Human | 40mg daily | Phase 3 | FDA Approved - Phase 2 Trial for Primary Mitochondrial Myopathy (2018)
Human | 40mg daily | 12 weeks | 36 patients - Cardioprotection in Heart Failure Model (2019)
Human | 0.25mg/kg/hr infusion | During cardiac surgery - Age-Related Muscle Dysfunction Study (2020)
Animal model | Various doses | 8 weeks | Aged mice - Application research of novel peptide mitochondrial-targeted antioxidant SS-31 in mitigating mitochondrial dysfunction
Du X, Zeng Q, Luo Y, 2024, Mitochondrion - SS-31, a Mitochondria-Targeting Peptide, Ameliorates Kidney Disease
Zhu Y, Luo M, Bai X, 2022, Oxid Med Cell Longev - Beneficial effects of SS-31 peptide on cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction in tafazzin knockdown mice
Russo S, De Rasmo D, Signorile A, 2022, Sci Rep - Mitochondria-targeted antioxidant peptide SS-31 mediates neuroprotection in a rat experimental glaucoma model
Wu X, Pang Y, Zhang Z, 2019, Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) - SS-31 Peptide Reverses the Mitochondrial Fragmentation Present in Fibroblasts From Patients With DCMA, a Mitochondrial Cardiomyopathy
Machiraju P, Wang X, Sabouny R, 2019, Front Cardiovasc Med